With the establishment of the Mamluk Sultanate in 1250, Cairo became the most important cultural centre of the Mediterranean. Foreign travellers, pilgrims, and envoys to the Mamluk court all bore witness to the extraordinary spectacle of colourful fabrics, describing everything from imported Indian block-printed cottons and embroideries to the finest silks produced for the Cairene elite. Al-Zahiri, an important Mamluk statesman and man of learning, reported, ‘when looking out from dar al‑diyafah (the guesthouse), the Mongol envoy sent by Timur was amazed by the large variety of costumes distinguishing each group displayed in front of him. He expressed his astonishment to the mihmandar (chief of protocol) and said that there was no equivalent in his own country. Sultan Barquq responded that this was only part of the costume variety and there was more diversity according to occasions and seasons’.

Inspiration and Innovation

Mamluk garments for everyday use were made of a large variety of materials and in a range of patterns, from striped silks and brightly coloured patchworks to linens or cottons embroidered with floss silk to imitate luxury silks produced in dar al-tiraz (the royal factories). Several cities were well known for their silk weaving, including Cairo, Damascus, and Damietta, but Alexandria was the main weaving centre for ceremonial textiles. When Alexandrian production started to decline in the late 14th century, the majority of weavers moved to Cairo’s markets, where they continued working under the sultan’s control. In his Khitat, al-Maqrizi reports that Suq al-Khila‘iyin (the Market of the Robes of Honour) was ‘one of the most frequented markets in Cairo because of the number of garments sold to the royal members and the others there. The majority of what is sold there are thiyab mukhayyatah (tailored garments)’. In addition to fabric markets, the other major source of inspiration for local embroiderers and cloth-makers were ceremonials. When a religious, military, or political event took place, sumptuously dressed sultans and amirs paraded through the streets of Cairo on horses decorated with silk and gold trappings. Carefully designed and executed silks, in particular khil‘ah (robes of honour), were not only symbols of wealth but also of power.

With the introduction of the draw loom in the second half of the 13th century, Mamluk craftsmen were able to adapt a wider range of patterns and improve their weaving skills of luxury silks to a high level of workmanship. Silks and other kinds of textiles imported from the east significantly contributed to the development of new designs and their interpretations in the local decorative repertoire. As a result, Mamluk silks became highly valued throughout the Mediterranean and replaced Mongol silks on the European market by the second half of the 14th century.

Hundreds of silk fragments and a small number of complete garments and accessories—comprising caps, trousers, robes, and bags—have survived from the Mamluk period. Many were illegally excavated, sold, and taken to the West by merchants and collectors in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, while others were scientifically excavated from Egyptian archaeological sites such as Qusair al-Qadim, Jabal ‘Adda, Akhmim, and Fustat. The best-preserved pieces of luxury silks that display the finest Mamluk workmanship are the ones that have been preserved in European churches in the form of chasubles, altar coverings, and mantles for statues of the Virgin.

Travelling silk

The earliest silks follow the weaving traditions and decorative patterns of those produced under the Ayyubids (1169–1250). By the late 13th century, weavers migrating from Mongol-conquered regions, including Iran and Iraq, to Egypt and Syria started incorporating foreign designs into local styles. This led to the development of a distinct Mamluk decorative repertoire in textile production. Like their Mongol rivals, the Mamluks produced tiraz, striped or banded and inscribed silks, with some bands showing popular iconographic themes such as a row of running animals or hunting scenes. The inscriptions usually refer to a sultan in the form of ‘‘izz li-mawlana al-sultan al-malik al-nasir’ (‘Glory to our master, the sultan, the king, the victorious’). One of the finest surviving examples of this early period is a coat fragment with a more complex design and an inscription likely referring to the Yemeni Rasulid sultan al-Mu’ayyad Da’ud ibn Yusuf (r. 1297–1321). It is possible that it was manufactured for the sultan either as a diplomatic gift or a special commission.

A couple of shrouds, dating from the late 13th century and found in a Christian burial site at Jabal ‘Adda in Lower Nubia, are characteristic of a group of Mamluk barred silks. One of them is inscribed with ‘li-man nazara, ana al-qamar’ (‘To whomever looks, I am the moon’). Poetic inscriptions on textiles in which the object talks to itself were more frequent in other Islamic regions including Spain and Iran. In contrast, good wishes, such as ‘al-‘izz wa’l-nasr wa’l-baqa’’ (‘prosperity, victory and long life’), were quite common. Both silks are almost identical and one of them is stamped with the word ‘Assiuti’, suggesting that these were possibly produced by the same weaving workshop—if not the same weaver—in Assiut in Upper Egypt. Another example of barred silk woven in tones of ivory beige, blue, and black is a fragment presumably found in a Coptic grave with some stripes patterned with geometric designs that include crosses. In terms of style, patterns and weaving technique, these pieces are part of a larger group of Mamluk barred or striped silks dispersed in various art collections. They were used for different purposes, but predominantly for garments and furnishings. Their material aspects and find spots indicate that they were made by smaller local producers within Christian communities.

Royal patronage

During the reign of al-Nasir Muhammad (r. 1293–1341), Mamluk silk production went through further artistic and technological developments, which required highly skilled workmanship. The scale of weaving techniques ranged from simple plain weaves with supplementary weft patterning to more complex damasks, lampas, and brocades. Many of these silks can be easily attributed to the patronage of al-Nasir Muhammad on stylistic and textual bases, as their inscriptions often include the sultan’s name ‘Qalawun’. The text progressively became smaller and was eventually limited to one or two words usually incorporated into the design in which geometric, floral, and animal patterns are predominant.

One of the finest Mamluk silks of al-Nasir’s period is a fragment of a child’s tunic with a design that combines checker-patterned bands forming ovoid medallions with small roundels reminiscent of Mamluk blazons. Worn by sultans, nobles, and their children, these luxury garments would have been paired with matching headdresses, such as quilted caps, placed under turbans. The large variety of extant Mamluk caps suggests that they were the product of a specialized craft requiring different skills. Besides the quilted ones, some caps are composed of silk fragments attached to woven and brocaded bands, which are either inscribed or purely decorative. The highly decorative aspect of such caps indicates that these were also worn without turbans, more likely in private spheres.

A number of later silks attributed to the 14th century further illustrate the great diversity in luxury dressing at the Mamluk court. Their inscriptions are limited to single words ‘al-sultan’ or ‘al‑malik’ set within decorative cartouches woven either in contrast to a brighter patterned background or in combination with other decorative features. The surface of another fragment is entirely covered with large peony blossoms on scrolling leafy stems, seemingly inspired by Chinese prototypes. These chinoiserie designs were so popular that they were applied by Mamluk enamellers onto glass mosque lamps, a number of which are associated with the patronage of Sultan Hasan (r. 1347–1351, 1354–1361).

Although the silk-weaving industry went through a period of regression in the second half of the fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries, the Alexandrian workshops continued manufacturing luxury silks on a limited scale. Al-Zahiri, who was also a governor of Alexandria, reported that the port produced extraordinary woven textiles that had no parallel elsewhere. Indeed, the most luxurious silks dating from this time have been preserved in Christian churches in Europe. One of the most renowned Mamluk silks is the mantle for a statue of the Virgin, most probably from a church near Valencia, Spain. Composed of several fragments, the design is worked in a highly refined manner, featuring Chinese-inspired lotuses and medallions inscribed with ‘‘izz li-mawlana al-sultan al-malik’ and ‘al-sultan al-malik’. Regardless of their inscriptions praising Mamluk sultans, Mamluk silks were often depicted in Italian paintings with Christian themes such as the Enthroned Madonna with Saints painted by Gherardo Starnina in around 1410. With the Ottoman conquest in 1517, the royal production of luxury silks in Egypt significantly diminished and eventually disappeared.